Thank you for your answer.
I did a comparison within the Code that actually is functioning. Opening the camera like this works:
cv::VideoCapture camL(0, cv::CAP_V4L2), camR(1, cv::CAP_V4L2);
While opening the camera like this failed (camL.isOpen() and camR.isOpen() return false):
cv::VideoCapture camL(0, cv::CAP_FFMPEG), camR(1, cv::CAP_FFMPEG);
So there is something not working with FFMPEG. I will definitely try your linked suggestion and report on my progress.